Due to the spectacular growth of the late Georgian cotton industry, cotton was Britain’s main export by 1803. All the processes for producing factory-made cotton goods were in place and during the 19th century techniques were refined. Eastern Lancashire, parts of Yorkshire and Cheshire developed into a dense area of almost 300 factory towns and villages. Manchester – considered the world’s first industrial city – was widely termed ‘Cottonopolis’ by the 1850s. All the raw materials still had to be imported, but just when West Indian and other sources of raw cotton grew insufficient, the fertile plantations of the US Southern States opened up. The contribution of American cotton growers/slave owners to the trade’s success was immense.

Cotton textile manufacture was driven by rising global demand and although many British goods were exported, the home market for cotton materials was strong. Historically the working classes could only afford coarse woollen and linen garments, with quality broadcloth and silk reserved for the rich; however, now, except for luxury muslins and other expensive grades, many cotton materials were both attractive and affordable, offering ordinary people and the middle classes greater choice. Comfortable cotton fabric was also easily washed, radically improving general hygiene. Its wide popularity weakened old sartorial distinctions and helped to democratise 19th century fashion, transforming the dress of the masses.

Meanwhile the disciplined factory system that underpinned cotton production effectively changed life for millions as the industrial age advanced. The prospect of regular employment prompted entire families to leave the countryside for the cotton manufacturing towns, but safety and working conditions were far from adequate. Many mills used unpaid pauper apprentices and in the early 1800s 20 per cent of their labour force numbered children under 13, while other children were much younger, seven-year olds often working 14-hour shifts. Although workplaces varied and mills like Quarry Bank at Styal were relatively enlightened for their time, typically early Victorian cotton factories were hazardous and the hours gruelling, leading to tragic accidents involving machinery and long-term respiratory issues from air pollution. Workers’ homes were no better: as urban populations boomed, local housing quickly grew inadequate. New thin-walled cottages and back to back houses were poorly ventilated, lacked basic amenities and were too small for large families. Even the hoped-for reliable wages proved elusive. The 1840s were characterised by industrial unrest and with the shortage of raw cotton imports caused by the American Civil War (1861–65) and closure of many mills, Lancashire workers experienced acute deprivation. {